Vitamins

5-Methyltetrahydrofolate

A reduced form of vitamin B9 in foods, and the methyl donor for homocysteine remethylation.

Flavin mononucleotide (FMN)

The riboflavin-derived cofactor that accepts NADH electrons at the start of mitochondrial complex I.

Retinoic acid

All-trans-retinoic acid made in the body from dietary retinol or beta-carotene, not stored in the food.

Vitamin A (Retinoids; β-Carotene precursor)

Neurodevelopment; immune regulation; antioxidant via carotenoids

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

Mitochondrial glucose metabolism; ATP synthesis; rapid turnover in CNS

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Methylation; myelin; mitochondrial odd-chain FA metabolism

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and FAD coenzymes; redox balance; supports methylation via MTHFR

Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

NAD+ precursor; supports mitochondrial biogenesis and ATP production

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)

CoA synthesis; fatty-acid oxidation; TCA cycle flux

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine → PLP)

PLP cofactor for neurotransmitter synthesis; relies on brain PDXK activation

Vitamin B9 (Folate)

One-carbon metabolism; methylation; homocysteine recycling

Vitamin C (Ascorbate)

Antioxidant; supports iron absorption; neuronal SVCT2 transport

Vitamin D

Neurotrophic and immune modulation; calcium homeostasis

Vitamin E (Tocopherols/Tocotrienols)

Lipid-phase antioxidant; protects PUFA (DHA) in membranes

Vitamin K (Phylloquinone)

Phylloquinone (vitamin K1) from green plants; required for vitamin K–dependent carboxylation.

Vitamin K2 (MK forms)

Calcium handling; potential roles in brain health; often co-occurs with fat-soluble vitamins